Intel 80188

The Intel 80 188 is a version of the Intel 80 186 microprocessor with an 8-bit external data bus, instead of 16 bits. This makes it cheaper to connect peripherals. Since 80 188 is very similar to the 80 186, it has a throughput of 1 million instructions per second.

Like the 8086, the 80 188 published four 16-bit general registers, which is eight 8-bit registers can also be used. It also included six or more 16-bit registers, which included, for example, the stack pointer, the instruction pointer, index registers, or a wet floor register that acted as a flag, for example, compared with operations .

Like the 8086, the processor also four 16-bit segment registers that the handling of more than 64 KB of memory, which is the limit of a 16-bit architecture, by introducing an offset value added, after being shifted left 4 bits to the value of another register.

Intel 80186

The Intel 80186 microprocessor and microcontroller presented 1982. They are based on the Intel 8086, and how the 16-bit external data bus multiplexed with 20-bit address bus. It is also available as an Intel 80 188, with 8-bit external data bus.

The 80 186 and 80 188 series are generally intended for embedded systems, microcontrollers with external memory. Therefore, reducing the number of chips, these are features such as clock generator, controller interrupts, timers, wait state generator, and external DMA channel chip select line.

The original clock rate of 80 186 and 80 188 is 6 MHz, but due to hardware microcode update is available for use, especially for the billing address many individual instructions run faster than 8086 on the same clock frequency. For example, right now a controller resolution mode is much faster than in 8086, especially when memory space was the one operands and destination. Time and shares showed a great improvement, there are several times as fast as the original 8086 multi-bit shift was made almost four times faster than in the 8086th processor.

INFORMATION ABOUT 12BIT MICROPROCESSOR

Intersil 6100 family includes a 12-bit microprocessor (6100) and support a range of peripherals and memory integrated circuits Microsoft agreed to PDP - 8 instructions that are sometimes called CMOS - PDP8 due to be produced by Harris. Corporation, is named Harris HM - 6100 based CMOS technology and benefits related to 6100 can be combined for some military early in 1980, are for 6100. informational, military and a pair of Intersil and Harris used.
Some products used in military. low-power alternative for 8080, 6800, etc. Although the instruction set architecture, which is very simple and perfectly adequate. For use on systems that have previously used as logic circuits, and the court followed controllers.the Ledex relay 6100, with 12-bit address bus data / RAM limited to 4K of memory references is 7-bit address offset 0 or both. in front of the computer (PC and October 7600), memory chip Expand options can support 6102, which added three lines to address and expand the memory is 32 kB in the same way that the PDP - 8 / E expanded PDP - a second register in August 6102, IFR (instruction framework), and DFR data to compensate for 4k page when CPU memory access.

APPLICATIONS OF MICROPROCESSORS

It has got plenty of applications in engineering , medical,science and marketing research companies.
some of them are listed for better understanding of the viewers.
1.Real time applications.
2.Graphics.
3.Digital signal processors.
4.Mathematical calculations.
5.sensor observations.
6.Embedded systems
7.signals and systems.

TYPES OF PROCESSORS

The majority of Microsoft. Processors embedded microcontroller. The most common type of second The process is common desktop processors such as Intel Pentium or AMD Athlon processors together. Too low to effectively use the server high - end, such as Sun SPARC, IBM Power, Itanium or Intel.

Micro-history. Processors and microcontrollers in the size of the boss "of 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits and 64 bits are common It does not mean that other sizes are not available, some microcontroller. (To design embedded chips) can come from other "non standard" size of 4 bits, 12 bits, 18 bits or 24 bits represents the number of bits. Physical memory can be addressed directly by the CPU also means the number Bit can be read by a read / write operations. In some cases they are different, such as 8-bit micro Many bus and 8-bit address bus of 16 bits.

* Processor 8-bit is read / write 1 byte at a time and can directly address 256 bytes.
* 16 bit processors can read / write 2 bytes at a time and can handle 65,536 bytes (64 KB).
* 32 bit processors can read / write 4 bytes at a time and can manage 4294967295 bytes (4 gigabytes).
* 64 - bit processors can read / write 8 bytes at a time and can stay. 18.446.744.073.709.551.616 bytes (16 exabytes).

MEMORY INFORMATIONS FOR MICROPROCESSORS

In theMicroprocessor an 8-bit address bus and a data bus 8 bits wide. This means that the microprocessor can handle (28) 256 bytes of memory, and it can read or write 8 bits of memory at once. Assume that this simple microprocessor, has 128 bytes of ROM starting at address 0 and 128 bytes of RAM starting at address 128.

ROM stands for read-only memory. A ROM chip is programmed with a permanent collection of preset bytes. The address bus indicates the ROM chip which byte to get and set the data bus. When the RD line changes state, the ROM chip presents the selected byte data bus.
using microprocessor memory chip with the primary function. Learn more about the memory of the microprocessor, ROM, BIOS and what is the boot sector.
RAM chip

RAM is random access memory. RAM contains bytes of information, and the microprocessor can read or write bytes depending on whether the RD or WR line is signaled. A problem with the RAM chips now that they forget everything when the power is off. This is why the computer needs ROM.

Incidentally, nearly all computers contain some amount of ROM (it is possible to create a simple computer that contains no RAM - many microcontrollers do this by placing a handful of bytes of RAM on the processor chip in its itself - but in general, impossible to create one that contains no ROM). In a PC, the ROM is called the BIOS (BASIC Input / Output System). When the microprocessor starts, it begins executing instructions it finds in the BIOS. The BIOS instructions do things like test the hardware on the machine, and then it goes on the hard disk to fetch the boot sector (see How Hard Drives Work for details). The boot sector is another small program, and the BIOS store it in RAM after reading it from disk. The microprocessor then begins executing instructions from the boot sector of RAM. The boot sector program will tell the microprocessor to getting something else from the hard disk into RAM, then runs to the microprocessor, and more. Thus, the microprocessor loads and executes the entire system.

SIMPLE LOGIC OF MICROPROCESSOR

A microprocessor performs a collection of machine instructions that the processor what to say. Based on the instructions, a microprocessor does three basic things:

* Using the ALU (Arithmetic / Logic Unit), a microprocessor can perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Modern microprocessors contain complete floating point processors that can perform extremely sophisticated operations on large floating point numbers.
* A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another.
* A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on those decisions.

It can be very sophisticated things that a microprocessor does, but those are its three basic activities. The following diagram shows an extremely simple microprocessor that can do three things:
This is about as simple as a microprocessor gets. This microprocessor has:

* An address bus (which can be 8, 16 or 32 bits wide) that sends an address in memory
* A data bus (which can be 8, 16 or 32 bits wide) that the data in memory can send or receive data from memory
* A RD (read) and WR (write) line to memory, whether he wants to establish whether the recipient site to get say
* A clock line that lets a clock pulse sequence the processor
* A reset line that the program.

HOW A MICROPROCESSOR WORKS

The microprocessor is the heart of a normal computer, whether it is a desktop machine, a server or a laptop. The microprocessor you are using may be a Pentium, a K6, a PowerPC, a Sparc or any of the many different brands and types of microprocessors, but they all do roughly the same in the same way.

A microprocessor - also known as a CPU or central processing unit - is a complete calculation engine that is manufactured on a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced in 1971. The 4004 was not very powerful - all it could do was add and subtract, and it could only do that 4 bits at a time. But it was amazing that everything on one chip. Prior to 4004, engineers built computers either from collections of chips or from discrete components (transistors one at a time). The 4004 powered one of the first portable electronic calculators.

INTELS 8 BIT PROCESSORS

8008:-

• Introduced April 1, 1972
• Clock rate 200 kHz (8008–1: 800 kHz)
• 0.05 MIPS
• Bus Width 8 bits (multiplexed address/data due to limited pins)
• Enhancement loadPMOS logic
• Number of Transistors 3,500 at 10 µm
• Addressable memory 16 KB
• Typical in early 8 bit microcomputers, dumb terminals, general calculators, bottling machines
• Developed in tandem with 4004.

8080:-

• Introduced April 1, 1974
• Clock rate 2 MHz
• 0.64 MIPS
• Bus Width 8 bits data, 16 bits address
• Enhancement load NMOS logic
• Number of Transistors 6,000
• Assembly language downwards compatible with 8008.
• Addressable memory 64 KB
• Up to 10X the performance of the 8008.

8085:-

• Introduced March 1976
• Clock rate 2 MHz^]
• 0.37 MIPS
• Bus Width 8 bits data, 16 bits address
• Depletion loadNMOS logic.
• Number of Transistors 6,500 at 3um

INTEL'S 8 BIT INFORMATIONS

Intel 4004 was followed in 1972 by the Intel 8008, microprocessor first 8-bit world. According to the History of Modern Computing (MIT Press), pp. 220-21, Intel has entered into a contract with Computer Terminals Corporation, later called Datapoint, of San Antonio TX, for a chip for a terminal that was designed. Datapoint later decided not to use the chip, and Intel marketed as 8008 in April, 1972. This was the first chip 8-bit world. This was the basis for the famous "Mark-8 computer kit advertised in the magazine Radio-Electronics in 1974. 8008 was the precursor to the very successful Intel 8080 (1974), Zilog Z80 (1976), and derivative Intel 8-bit processors. Competitive Sony Ericsson 6800 was released in August 1974 and related MOS Technology 6502 in 1975 (drawn mainly from the same people). 6502 Z80 rivaled in popularity during the 1980s. A generally low cost, small packaging, simple bus computer applications, and sometimes otherwise provided by circuitry external hardware (Z80 has a built-in memory refresh) allowed the home computer "revolution" to accelerate significantly in the early 1980, finally sending such cheap cars like Sinclair ZX-81, which sold for $ 99. Western Design Center, Inc. (WDC) introduced the CMOS 65C02 in 1982 and licensed the design to several companies. It is used as the CPU in the Apple IIc and IIe personal computers, as well as medical grade implantable cardiac stimulants and defibrilators, automotive, industrial and consumer devices. WDC pioneered licensing chip designs, followed later by ARM and other microprocessor Intellectual Property (IP) providers in the 1990s. Motorola MC6809 introduced in 1978, an ambitious and thought source design 8-bit 6800 compatible with and implemented by using simple hard-wired logic. (The 16-bit microprocessors commonly used microcode to some extent, as the design requirements are too complex for simple logic hard-wired only.) Another early 8-bit microprocessor was the Signetics 2650, which has enjoyed a surge in short interest because of the powerful new architecture and its instruction set. A seminal microprocessor in the world of spaceflight was RCA's RCA 1802 (CDP1802 aka, COSMAC RCA) (introduced in 1976), which is used in NASA Voyager and Viking spaceprobes the 1970s, and on board Galileo probe to Jupiter (launched 1989, arrived in 1995). COSMAC RCA was the first to implement CMOS technology. CDP1802 was used because it can be run on very low power, and because its production process (Silicon on Sapphire) ensured better protection against cosmic radiation and electrostatic discharges than that of any other processor time. Thus, 1802 is said to be the first radiation-toasted chip. RCA 1802 had what is called a static design, meaning that the clock frequency can be arbitrarily low, even at 0 Hz, a total stop condition. This leaves the Voyager / Viking / Galileo spacecraft use minimum electric power for long stretches of a smooth voyage. Timers and / or sensors would awaken / improve the performance of the processor in time for important tasks, such as updates navigation, attitude control, data acquisition, and radio communication.

INTEL'S FIRST MICROPROCESSOR

Intel 4004 microprocessor is generally considered the first and cost thousands of dollars. The first known competition for 4004 is the date of November 1971, she appeared in news. The project has generated 4004 Born in 1969, when Busicom, a Japanese calculator manufacturer, asked Intel to create a chipset for high-performance desktop calculators. Busicom original design contemplated a programmable chip that consists of 7 different cards, three of them used a special purpose CPU in their program stored in ROM and data stored in shift register read-write memory . Ted Hoff, Intel engineer assigned to evaluate the project, which is believed Busicom design can be simplified by using dynamic RAM for data storage, instead of logging memory change, and a more traditional general purpose CPU architecture. Hoff came up with a proposed architecture of four chips: a ROM chip for storing programs, a dynamic RAM chip data classification, a simple / O unit and a 4-bit central processing (CPU) , who considered that they could be integrated into a single chip, although it was not a designer of chips. This chip would later tell the chip 4004. Architecture and specifications of 4004 were the result of interaction with Stanley Mazor Intel Hoff, an engineer software reporting Hoff Busicom Engineering and Masatoshi Shima. In April 1970 Intel hired Federico Faggin led the design of seven four chips. Faggin, who originally developed the silicon gate technology (Sergeant) at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968 [10] (and also designed the first shopping center in the world using the integrated Sergeant - Fairchild 3708), has the background necessary to run the project after The sergeant was allowed to design a CPU on one chip with the correct speed, power dissipation and cost. Faggin also developed a new methodology for the design of random logic gate based on silicon, making possible 4004. The production of 4,004 units were delivered for the first time in Busicom March 1971 and sent to other clients in late 1971.

USE OF RISC TECHNOLOGY

RISC stands for "Reduced Instruction Set Computing, or a humorous vein, the" exile of the important things that a translator, "and also known as load-store architecture. In the 1970s research at IBM produced the surprising result is that some action is indeed slower than several smaller operations in the same thing. A famous example of this was the VAX's INDEX instruction, which ran slower than the implementation of a cycle of the same code. RISC started being adopted in a big way during the 1980s, but many of the projects before the ethics embodied in this design. A notable example is the 1964 CDC 6600 by Seymour Cray supercomputer, which sports designer, that the load-store architecture, addressing modes and a lot of two pipelines of arithmetic and logic functions (more pipelines are necessary when you're shuttling task instructions and the CPU in a parallel manner as opposed to a linear fashion). Most RISC machines have only about five simple addressing modes - with fewer addressing modes, the more reduced instruction set (the IBM System 360, only three modes). Easier to design a pipelined CPU, if you use a simpler addressing modes.

Early Intel: 4004, 8008, and 8080

Intel all his solo 4 a bit - on purpose chip, Intel 4004, in November 1971. It is a clock frequency of 108 kHz and Rome, RAM, and I ports for 2300 with transistor / A was originally developed for use in a computer with an Intel had his contract as a stand-negotiate new market to single-processor can. It was inspired by Jesus in December PDP -8. Intel was introduced in April 8008 1972, and was no more than a farce, more or less an 8-bit 4004th The primary claim was that his own fame BC - Computer Terminal Corporation (CTC), the chip provided by the Commission - are the basis for 8080, with 8086 and later (and thus also for x86) architecture. At this time about 4040 includes Intel's password, bewitched the instructions were logical and 4004 and add 32-bit Intel 432nd Intel put the 8080 back, which is considered one of the first 8008 to teach at the map and generally considered the first truly usable microprocessor used. 8080 16-bit address bus and an 8-bit data bus, a 16-bit memory, the 8008 from 8 internal heap heap index had changed, and a 16-bit counter program. These 256 I / O ports located, I / O device address space or path can be added without the intervention. This is an indication that a separate bank of memory PIN capture was possible for a heap. These qualities made him a truly modern microprocessor. The Altair 8800, one of the first popular computer to use (the other applicants that MIT Lincoln in 1963 with the title bit "-12 Labs LINC / laboratory equipment including computer components and December 1965-8 December PDP created with itself). Although 4004 was the first company, it's really 8080, that its future will win - it was immediately clear, and that in 1974 the company changed its telephone number so that the last four digits will be 8080th

THE FIRST THREE CHIPS

The first three The time of writing, three groups have been claiming to have put the first computer chip: Central Air Data Computer (Cadca), Intel ® 4004, and Texas Instruments TMS 1000 Cadca system naval badge "fighter jets in 1970" was completed by. It is often exempted because it is a CPU chip and not set. 1000 TMS as a calculator Tiwari was the first in the market, but - the difference between stand alone image Intel 4004, now as before because often quoted (fault, it was a one in four of not being in chips). Really, it's not what was before. Parent, light bulb, radio - and many before and after - say that it was in aether, as was inevitable with sufficient other innovations, their time had come